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1994-05-02
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<text>
<title>
Korea, South: History
</title>
<article>
<hdr>
Background Notes: Korea, South
History
</hdr>
<body>
<p> According to legend, the god-king Tangun founded the Korean
nation in 2333 B.C., after which his descendants reigned over
a peaceful kingdom for more than a millennium. By the first
century A.D., the Korean Peninsula, known as Chosun ("morning
calm"), was divided into the kingdoms of Silla, Koguryo, and
Paekche. In A.D. 668, the peninsula was unified under the Silla
kingdom, rulership of which was taken over in 918 by the Koryo
dynasty (from which is taken the name "Korea"). The Yi dynasty,
which supplanted Koryo in 1392, lasted until the Japanese
annexed Korea in 1910.
</p>
<p> Throughout most of its history, Korea has been invaded,
influenced, and fought over by its larger neighbors. Major
Japanese invasions occurred in 1592 and 1597, and the Chinese
attacked in 1627. To protect themselves from such foreign
buffeting, the Yi kings finally adopted a closed-door policy,
which earned Korea the title of "Hermit Kingdom." Though the
Yis showed nominal fealty to the Chinese throne, Korea was in
fact independent until the late 19th century, when Japanese
influence became predominant.
</p>
<p> In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Japanese,
Chinese, and Russian competition in Northeast Asia led to armed
conflict. Having defeated its two competitors, Japan established
dominance in Korea, annexing it in 1910. The Japanese colonial
era was characterized by almost total control from Tokyo and by
ruthless efforts to replace the Korean language and culture with
those of the colonial power.
</p>
<p> As World War II ended, the United States and the Soviet
Union agreed at Yalta that Japanese forces in Korea would
surrender to the United States south of the 38th parallel and
to the Soviet Union north of that line. This division of Korea
was intended as a temporary administrative measure only.
However, in 1946-47, the Soviet administration in the North
refused to allow free consultations with representatives of all
groups of the Korean people for the purpose of establishing a
national government, and the United States and the Soviet Union
subsequently were unable to reach agreement on an unification
formula.
</p>
<p>Korean War
</p>
<p> In the face of communist refusal to comply with the UN
General Assembly resolution of November 1947, calling for
UN-supervised elections throughout Korea, elections were carried
out under UN observation in the U.S. zone of occupation, and on
August 15, 1948, the Republic of Korea (ROK) was established
there. The Republic's first president was a prominent Korean
nationalist, Syngman Rhee. In September 1948, the Soviet Union
established the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (DPRK) in
the North under Kim Il Sung, a former Soviet Army major, who
claimed authority over the entire peninsula. On December 12,
1948, the UN General Assembly declared the ROK the only lawful
government in Korea.
</p>
<p> The United States withdrew its military forces from Korea in
1949. On June 25, 1950, North Korean forces invaded the
Republic of Korea. The United Nations, in response and in
accordance with the terms of its Charter, engaged in its first
collective action through the establishment of the UN Command
(UNC), to which 16 member nations sent troops and assistance.
At the request of the UN Secretary General, this international
effort was led by the United States, which contributed the
largest contingent. UN forces initially succeeded in advancing
almost to the Yalu River, which divides the Korean Peninsula
from China, but large numbers of "people's volunteers" from the
army of the People's Republic of China joined the North Korea
forces. In December 1950, a major Chinese attack forced UN
troops to withdraw southward. The battle line fluctuated up and
down the peninsula until the late spring of 1951, when it
finally stabilized north of Seoul near the 38th parallel.
</p>
<p> Armistice negotiations began in July 1951, but hostilities
continued until July 27, 1953, when, at the village of
Panmunjom, the military commanders of the DPRK forces, the
Chinese people's volunteers, and the UNC signed an armistice
agreement. Neither the United States nor the ROK is a signatory
of the armistice per se, though both adhere to it through the
UNC. No comprehensive peace agreement has been signed in Korea,
and the 1953 armistice agreement remains in force. A Military
Armistice Commission, composed of 10 members, 5 appointed by
each side, is empowered to supervise implementation of the terms
of the armistice.
</p>
<p> The armistice called for an international conference to find
a political solution to the problem of Korea's division. This
conference met at Geneva in April 1954, but after 7 weeks of
futile debate, ended inconclusively.
</p>
<p>Postwar Developments
</p>
<p> Syngman Rhee served as president of the Republic of Korea
until April 1960, when university students and others,
demonstrating in protest against irregularities in the
presidential election of that year, forced him to step down. A
caretaker government was established, the constitution was
amended and, in June, national elections were held. The
opposition Democratic Party easily defeated Rhee's Liberals,
and in August, the new National Assembly named Chang Myon prime
minister. Chang's democratic but administratively ineffectual
government--the Second Republic--lasted until May 1961,
when it was overthrown in an army coup led by Maj. Gen. Park
Chung Hee.
</p>
<p> After 2 years of military government under Gen. Park,
civilian rule was restored with the advent of the Third Republic
in 1963. Park, who had retired from the army, was elected
president (and was reelected in 1967, 1971, and 1978). In 1972,
a popular referendum approved the Yushin (revitalizing)
constitution, which greatly strengthened the executive branch's
powers. Key provisions included indirect election of the
president, presidential appointment of one-third of the National
Assembly, and presidential authority to issue decrees to
restrict civil liberties in times of national emergency. Park
subsequently issued several such decrees; the best-known of
these, EM-9, banned discussion of false rumors, criticism of the
constitution or advocacy of its reform, and political
demonstrations by students.
</p>
<p> The Park era, marked by rapid industrialization and
extraordinary economic growth and modernization, ended with his
assassination in October 1979. Prime Minister Choi Kyu Ha
assumed office briefly (the Fourth Republic), promising a new
constitution and presidential elections. In December 1979, Maj.
Gen. Chun Doo Hwan and his close colleagues removed the army
chief of staff and soon controlled the government. By
September, President Choi had been forced to resign, and General
Chun, by then retired from the army, was named president.
</p>
<p> During this process and in opposition to it, demonstrations
by campus activists and others increased through the spring of
1980. In mid-May, the government declared martial law, banned
all demonstrations, and arrested many political leaders and
dissidents. In Kwangju City, Special Forces units reacted
harshly to demonstrators who ignored the ban, setting off a
confrontation which left an official estimate of 170 dead.
Unofficial sources claim a higher figure. This incident left a
wound that has proven slow to heal.
</p>
<p> In October, a referendum approved a new constitution,
beginning the Fifth Republic. This document retained key
features of earlier ones, including a strong executive and
indirect election of the president but limited the chief
executive to one 7-year term. Elections were held in early 1981
for a National Assembly and an electoral college; the latter
elected President Chun to a 7-year term beginning in March of
that year.
</p>
<p> Although martial law ended in January 1981, the government,
under laws enacted during the martial law period, retains broad
legal powers